Sungas
- founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas
- a most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest
- Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for sometime
- Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lost
- also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north India
- Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism.
- performed two asvamedha sacrifices.
- Buddhist sources refer to him as a persecutor of Buddhism.
- But there is enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved.
- his son Agnimitra became the ruler
- last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty.
- Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years.
- rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions
- In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice
- They also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language.
Satavahanas
- In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas
- rule lasted for about 450 years.
- They were also known as the Andhras.
- Puranas and inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahana
- Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
- founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.
- succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to Nasik in the west.
- third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha sacrifices. The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit language
- greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni
- ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D. His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire. His victory over Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists.
- Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna river.
- He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni.
Economic Condition
- remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana rule.
- Merchants organized guilds to increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into existence.
- coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
- Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan
- greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan.
Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
Cultural Contributions
- Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism.
- built chaityas and viharas.
- also made grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks.
- Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
- architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable. Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices.
- They also patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an excellent piece of Prakrit literature.
- Foreign Invasions of Northwest India
- Bactrians
- Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle of the third century B.C.
- From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for further conquests.
- Apollodorus conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain. Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga
- Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot).
- He evinced much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda).
- also embraced Buddhism
- A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.
Sakas
- Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek rulers
- There were two different groups of Sakas – the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps ruling over Maharashtra.
- under the Saka rule in India in the first century, B.C. was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I, who was considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era
- Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians.
Kushanas
- Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original home was central Asia.
- first came to Bactria displacing the Sakas. Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara region.
- founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I
- occupied the Kabul valley and issued coins in his name
- son Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II conquered the whole of northwestern India as far as Mathura
- He issued gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’. He was a devotee of Lord Siva
Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)
- founder of the Saka era which starts from 78 A.D. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion and art.
- Kanishka’s Conquests
- According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it.
- His coins are found in many places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares and therefore, he must have conquered the greater part of the Gangetic plain.
- He also fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories from them. During the first expedition he was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho. He undertook a second expedition in which he was successful and he scored a victory over Panyang, the son of Pancho. Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan into his empire.
Kanishka and Buddhism
- Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign
- his coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods
- reflect the Kanishka’s toleration towards other religions
- In the age of Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue. It is different in many respects from the religion taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka. The Buddha came to be worshipped with flowers, garments, perfumes and lamps.
- image worship and rituals developed in Mahayana Buddhism.
- Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of the new faith.
- Buddhist chaityas and viharas were built in different places. He patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
- e also convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship of Vasumitra.
- Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given final shape.
- Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita. Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka. The famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by him
Gandhara Art
- home of the Gandhara school of art is the territory in and around Peshawar in northwestern India
- best of the Gandhara sculpture was produced during the first and second centuries A.D
- It originated during the reign of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons of this school of art were the Sakas and the Kushanas, particularly Kanishka
- Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman elements. Specimens of Gandhara sculpture have been found in Taxila, Peshawar and in several places of northwest India.
- Gandhara school made sculptures of the Buddha in various sizes, shapes and postures.
- The reliefs depict Buddha’s birth, his renunciation and his preaching.
- The salient features of Gandhara art are
- Moulding human body in a realistic manner with minute attention to physical features like muscles, moustache and curtly hair.
- Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
- Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic expressions.
- The main theme was the new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism and the evolution of an image of Buddha.
Mathura School of Art
- developed at Mathura in modern Uttar Pradesh is called the Mathura art
- the Mathura school of art developed on indigenous lines.
- Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling in his face which was largely absent in the Gandhara school.
- Mathura school also carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi.
- The female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved.
Sangam Age
- According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam.
- Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
- first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available
- second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam.
- third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived. These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age
- Sangam Literature
- The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
- Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature
- a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period.
- Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
- Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
- Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
- Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
- Silappathigaram was written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society
- Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms. The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.
Period of Sangam Literature
- The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran
- Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries
- This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.
- , the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century B.C. to third century A.D. on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.
Political History
- Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age.
- Cheras
- ruled over parts of modern Kerala.
- Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri.
- Pugalur inscription of the first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers.
- Padirruppattu also provides information on Chera kings.
- Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.
- Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram.
- his expedition to the Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated many north Indian monarchs.
- Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.
- The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was brought by him after his Himalayan expedition
- the consecration ceremony was attended by many princes including Gajabhagu II from Sri Lanka.
Cholas
- Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh
- the capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar
- Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas.
- Pattinappalai portrays his early life and his military conquests.
- In the Battle of Venni, he defeated the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
- Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which nine enemy chieftains submitted before him. Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil country.
- Trade and commerce flourished during his reign period.
- reclamation of forest lands and brought them under cultivation thus adding prosperity to the people. He also built Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation tanks.
Pandyas
- Pandyas ruled over the present-day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai
- two Neduncheliyans. The first one was known as Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (one who won victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for the execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai. The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (He who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam) Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and Mangudi Maruthanar.
- Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya country
- flourishing seaport of Korkai
- Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras
- Minor Chieftains
- Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tam
Sangam Polity
- Hereditary monarchy
- king had also taken the advice of his ministers
- court-poet and the imperial court or avai.
- Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar, the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar.
- Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the Cheras.
- . The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).
- Each ruler had a regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
- Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade. T
- Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.
- Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury
- Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and smuggling
Sangam Society
- Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands –
- Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
- people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship
- Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
- Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products
- Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
- Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
- Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery
- Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar
- the ruling class was called Arasar.
- Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
- Vanigars carried on trade and commerce
- vellalas were agriculturists
- Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the Sangam society. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period
Religion
- the primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God
- He was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
- Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
Position of Women
- Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature
- The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems.
- Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.
- The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar.
- A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature. Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.
The Economy of the Sangam Age
- Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common crop. Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other crops.
- Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country
- handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They include weaving, metal works and carpentry, shipbuilding and the making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
- There was a great demand in the western world for cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
- The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
- author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.
End of the Sangam Age
- Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country from the middle of the Third Century A.D. to the end of the Sixth century A.D
- Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period.
- Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their rule.
