General Studies (GS) Paper 4, Syllabus for UPSC Civil Service Mains Exam
General Studies (GS) Paper 4, Syllabus for UPSC Civil Service Mains Exam Ethics and Human Interface: Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in human actions; dimensions of ethics; ethics in private and public relationships. Human Values – lessons from the lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers and administrators; the role of family, society and educational institutions in inculcating values. Attitude: content, structure, function; its influence and relation with thought and behaviour; moral and political attitudes; social influence and persuasion. Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service, integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship, objectivity, dedication to public service, empathy, tolerance and compassion towards the weaker sections. Emotional intelligence-concepts, and their utilities and application in administration and governance. Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and the world. Download Previous Year UPSC Questions Public/Civil service values and Ethics in Public administration: Status and problems; ethical concerns and dilemmas in government and private institutions; laws, rules, regulations and conscience as sources of ethical guidance; accountability and ethical governance; strengthening of ethical and moral values in governance; ethical issues in international relations and funding; corporate governance. Probity in Governance: Concept of public service; Philosophical basis of governance and probity; Information sharing and transparency in government, Right to Information, Codes of Ethics, Codes of Conduct, Citizen’s Charters, Work culture, Quality of service delivery, Utilization of public funds, challenges of corruption. Case Studies on the above issues
General Studies (GS) Paper 3, Syllabus For UPSC Civil Services Mains Exam
General Studies (GS) Paper 3, Syllabus For UPSC IAS Mains Exam Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment. Inclusive growth and issues arising from it. Government Budgeting. Major crops cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public Distribution System objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing. Food processing and related industries in India– scope and significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management. Land reforms in India. Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. Investment models. Science and technology– developments and their applications and effects in everyday life Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment Best Books for UPSC Preparation Disaster and disaster management.Linkages between development and spread of extremism. Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.Challenges to internal security through communication networks, the role of media and social networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cybersecurity; money-laundering and its prevention Security challenges and their management in border areas; linkages of organized crime with terrorismVarious Security forces and agencies and their mandate
The Vedic Culture, Jainism And Buddhism
The Vedic Culture Around thisvedic culture period, the speakers of the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region. As they were mainly cattle keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta Vedic Literature The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to know the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’ Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise of various gods. Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals. Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with a topic like a soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature. Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 B.C.) During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus region Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi.Buddhism Political Organization the basic unit of political o RG–kula or family Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama leader of grama was known as gramani A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati. the highest political unit was called Jana or tribe. several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. head of the kingdom was called as Rajan or king monarchical and the succession was hereditary. king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army in his administration. were two popular bodies called the Sabha and Samiti former seems to have been a council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people. Social Life Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. head of the family was known as grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practised while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies. Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Women could even attend the popular assemblies.–Samiti no child marriage and the practice of Sati was absent. – Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal . Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite pastimes social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the later Vedic period. Economic Condition pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle With the knowledge and use of iron, they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession profitable Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woollen fabrics were made Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments. The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use. Trade was conducted on the barter system. rivers served as important means of transport. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions. Religion worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period Agni who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.) Aryans further moved towards the east in the Later Vedic Period. Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India). Political Organization Larger kingdoms Many Jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler). new officials were involved in the administration They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger. lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies.
General Studies (GS) Paper 2, Syllabus for UPSC Civil Services Mains Exam
General Studies (GS) Paper 2, Syllabus for UPSC IAS Civil Services Mains Exam Indian Constitution– historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.• Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.• Separation of powers between various organs disputes redressal mechanisms and institutions.• Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries Parliament and State Legislatures – structure, functioning, the conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of these.• Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary Ministries and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role in the Polity. Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.• Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.• Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.• Development processes and the development industry- the role of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders. Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.• Issues relating to the development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources. Issues relating to poverty and hunger. Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency & accountability and institutional and other measures.• Role of civil services in a democracy. India and its neighbourhood– relations.• Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests• Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Indian Diaspora.• Important International institutions, agencies and fora- their structure, mandate.
General Studies (GS) Paper 1 Syllabus for Civil Services Mains Exam UPSC
General Studies (GS) Paper 1 Syllabus for Civil Services Mains Exam UPSC Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times. Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues. The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors /contributions from different parts of the country. Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country. History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization, political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism etc.- their forms and effect on the society. Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India. Role of women and women’s organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues, urbanization, their problems and their remedies. Effects of globalization on Indian society Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism. Salient features of the world’s physical geography. Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian subcontinent); factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India) Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location- changes in critical geographical features (including water bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.
RBI’s Surplus Fund Transfer To GOI
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) decided to transfer Rs.1,76,051 crore to the Central Government after accepting recommendations of the Bimal Jalan Committee. The amount of Rs.1,76,051 crore includes the RBI Surplus money of Rs. 1,23,414 crore for the year 2018-19 and Rs. 52,637 crore of excess risk provision as per the revised Economic Capital Framework (ECF) suggested by the Committee. What is RBI Surplus? The RBI Surplus is the net income earned by the apex bank after deducting all the expenses. In the year 2018-19, the RBI Surplus stood at Rs 1,23,414 crore, which is now being transferred to the government. This income is known as Profit or Dividend incorporate language. The companies generally distribute the dividend or profit among the shareholders. However, RBI is not a company; its’ profits are considered as income itself. What is Excess Risk Provision? The excess risk provision of Rs.52,637 crore is the Contingency Fund maintained by the RBI. The Reserve Bank generally maintains the Contingency Fund at 6.8 per cent of the Balance Sheet. However, as per the Bimal Jalan Committee’s recommendations, this fund should fall within 5.5 to 6.5 per cent mark of the Balance Sheet. Hence, the RBI decided to maintain the Contingency Fund at 5.5 per cent and gave the excess provision to the Government of India. Major recommendations of the Committee with regard to risk provisioning and surplus distribution RBI’s economic capital: The Committee reviewed the status, need and justification of the various reserves, risk provisions and risk buffers maintained by the RBI and recommended their continuance. A clearer distinction between the two components of economic capital (realized equity and revaluation balances) was also recommended by the Committee as realized equity could be used for meeting all risks/ losses as they were primarily built up from retained earnings, while revaluation balances could be reckoned only as risk buffers against market risks as they represented unrealized valuation gains and hence were not distributable. Risk provisioning for market risk: The Committee has recommended the adoption of Expected Shortfall (ES) methodology under stressed conditions (in place of the extant Stressed-Value at Risk) for measuring the RBI’s market risk on which there was a growing consensus among central banks as well as commercial banks over the recent years. While central banks are seen to be adopting ES at 99 per cent confidence level (CL), the Committee has recommended the adoption of a target of ES 99.5 per cent CL keeping in view the macroeconomic stability requirements. In view of the cyclical volatility of the RBI’s revaluation balances, a downward risk tolerance limit (RTL) of 97.5 per cent CL has also been articulated. Both levels were stress-tested for their adequacy by the Committee. Size of Realized Equity: The Committee recognized that the RBI’s provisioning for monetary, financial and external stability risks is the country’s savings for a ‘rainy day’ (a monetary/ financial stability crisis) which has been consciously maintained with the RBI in view of its role as the Monetary Authority and the Lender of Last Resort. Realized equity is also required to cover credit risk and operational risk. This risk provisioning made primarily from retained earnings is cumulatively referred to as the Contingent Risk Buffer (CRB) and has been recommended to be maintained within a range of 6.5 per cent to 5.5 per cent of the RBI’s balance sheet, comprising 5.5 to 4.5 per cent for monetary and financial stability risks and 1.0 per cent for credit and operational risks. Surplus Distribution Policy: The Committee has recommended a surplus distribution policy which targets the level of realized equity to be maintained by the RBI, within the overall level of its economic capital vis-à-vis the earlier policy which targeted total economic capital level alone. Only if realized equity is above its requirement, will the entire net income be transferable to the Government? If it is below the lower bound of requirement, risk provisioning will be made to the extent necessary and only the residual net income (if any) transferred to the Government. Within the range of CRB, i.e., 6.5 to 5.5 percent of the balance sheet, the Central Board will decide on the level of risk provisioning. The RBI maintains four different Reserves which comprise of assets and earnings. These reserves are Contingency Fund –Reserve for tackling unexpected emergencies Asset Development Fund –Provides support to the RBI associates like National House of Banking Currency and Gold Revaluation Account –Gold Reserves and Foreign Exchange Assets Investment Revaluation Account –Fund available with the RBI to compensate losses and accommodate gains in foreign and domestic securities. Why RBI Surplus is transferred to the Central Government? Although RBI was promoted as a private shareholders’ bank in 1935 with a paid-up capital of Rs 5 crore, the government nationalised RBI in January 1949, making the sovereign its “owner”. What the central bank does, therefore, is transfer the “surplus” — that is, the excess of income over expenditure — to the government, in accordance with Section 47 (Allocation of Surplus Profits) of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. Major concerns and Expert’s opinion: The transfer of money from RBI to Government has been going on for years. It is not the first time that the apex bank has transferred its surplus money to the Government of India. However, this time, the transfer has raised concerns over the amount being transferred to Government ( It’s quite big – Rs.1,76,051 crores). The subject experts opine that if this huge amount of money is used judiciously by the government for infrastructure development facilities and so, then it is productive rather than using it as a solution to the NPA’s and Deficit financing.
Aadhaar
Aadhaar Aadhaar is once again in the news, with the Parliament passing an amendment bill as well the controversy on the government requiring people to link their social media accounts with Aadhaar. Aadhaar Act, 2016 The Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and other Subsidies, benefits and services) Act, 2016 was enacted to provide statutory backing for transfer of subsidies and benefits to eligible people having Aadhaar (UID) number. It was passed as a money bill, notwithstanding that it did not meet the criteria stated in the constitution. Major Provisions Eligibility: Every resident shall be entitled to obtain an Aadhaar number. A resident is a person who has resided in India for 182 days, in the one year preceding the date of application for enrolment for Aadhaar. Information to be submitted: To obtain an Aadhaar number, an individual has to submit his, (i) biometric (photograph, fingerprint, iris scan) and (ii) demographic (name, date of birth, address) information. The Unique Identification Authority (UID) may specify other biometric and demographic information to be collected by regulations. Enrolment: At the time of enrolment, the individual will be informed of, (i) the manner in which the information will be used, (ii) the nature of recipients with whom the information will be shared, and (iii) the right to access this information. After verification of information provided by a person, an Aadhaar number will be issued to him. Use of Aadhaar number: To verify the identity of a person receiving a subsidy or a service, the government may require them to have an Aadhaar number. If a person does not have an Aadhaar number, the government will require them to apply for it, and in the meanwhile, provide an alternative means of identification. Any public or private entity can accept the Aadhaar number as a proof of identity of the Aadhaar number holder, for any purpose. Aadhaar number cannot be proof of citizenship or domicile. Functions and composition of authority: The key functions of the UID authority include, (i) specifying demographic and biometric information to be collected during enrolment, (ii) assigning Aadhaar numbers to individuals, (iii) authenticating Aadhaar numbers, and (iv) specifying the usage of Aadhaar numbers for delivery of subsidies and services. The UID authority will consist of a chairperson, two part-time members and a chief executive officer. The chairperson and members are required to have experience of at least ten years in matters such as technology, governance, etc. Authentication: The UID authority will authenticate the Aadhar number of an individual if an entity makes such a request. A requesting entity has to obtain the consent of an individual before collecting his information. The agency can use the disclosed information only for purposes for which the individual has given consent. Response to authentication query: The UID authority shall respond to an authentication query with a positive, negative or other appropriate response. However, it is not permitted to share an individual’s fingerprint, iris scan and other biological attributes. Authentication record maintained by UID authority: The UID authority shall record the entity requesting verification of a person’s identity, the time of request and the response received by the entity. The purpose for which an individual’s identity needs to be verified will not be maintained. Protection of information: Biometric information such as an individual’s fingerprint, iris scan and other biological attributes (specified by regulations) will be used only for Aadhaar enrolment and authentication, and for no other purpose. Such information will not be shared with anyone, nor will it be displayed publicly, except for purposes specified by regulations. Cases when information may be revealed: In two cases, information may be revealed: In the interest of national security, a Joint Secretary in the central government may issue a direction for revealing, (i) Aadhaar number, (ii) biometric information (iris scan, fingerprint and other biological attributes specified by regulations), (iii) demographic information, and (iv) photograph. Such a decision will be reviewed by an Oversight Committee (comprising Cabinet Secretary, Secretaries of Legal Affairs and Electronics and Information Technology) and will be valid for six months. On the order of a court, (i) an individual’s Aadhaar number, (ii) photograph, and (iii) demographic information, may be revealed. Offences and penalties: A person may be punished with imprisonment up to three years and a minimum fine of Rs 10 lakh for unauthorised access to the centralized database, including revealing any information stored in it. If a requesting entity and an enrolling agency fail to comply with rules, they shall be punished with imprisonment up to one year or a fine up to Rs 10,000 or Rs one lakh (in case of a company), or with both. Cognizance of offence: No court shall take cognizance of any offence except on a complaint made by the UID authority or a person authorised by it. Read Also Budget 2022-2023 The Aadhaar and Other Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2019 It was brought in to replace an ordinance promulgated earlier. Major provisions Offline verification of Aadhaar number holder: Under the Aadhaar Act, an individual’s identity may be verified by Aadhaar ‘authentication’. Authentication involves submitting the Aadhaar number, and their biometric or demographic information to the Central Identities Data Repository for verification. The Bill additionally allows ‘offline verification’ of an individual’s identity, without authentication, through modes specified by the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) by regulations. During offline verification, the agency must (i) obtain the consent of the individual, (ii) inform them of alternatives to sharing information, and (iii) not collect, use or store Aadhaar number or biometric information. Voluntary use: The Act provides for the use of Aadhaar number as proof of identity of a person, subject to authentication. The Bill replaces this provision to state that an individual may voluntarily use his Aadhaar number to
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) Recently in news Centre releases Rs.47,436 crores for afforestation to various states from CAMPA funds What is CAMPA? Supreme Court of India ordered for establishment of Compensatory Afforestation Fund and Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) in 2001.In 2006, ad-hoc CAMPA was established for the management of Compensatory afforestation fund. The Bill envisage Establishing the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund for each of the states. receiving funds (from user agency) in national level and state level Funds for compensatory afforestation, the net present value of the forest and other project-specific payments. Spending the monies thus collected primarily for afforestation to compensate for the loss of forest cover, regeneration of forest ecosystem, wildlife protection and infrastructure development. Establishing the national and state-level fund management authorities to manage respective Funds. Also, Read Presedent’s Rule Important features: The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state. These Funds will receive payments for:(i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) the net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining 90%. According to the Act’s provision, a company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to take up compensatory afforestation. For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the state. Key Issues and Analysis: In 2002, the Supreme Court had observed that collected funds for afforestation were under-utilised by the states and it ordered for centrally pooling of funds under ad hoc Compensatory Afforestation Fund. The law says that land selected for afforestation should preferably be contiguous to the forest being diverted so that it is easier for forest officials to manage it. But if no suitable non-forest land is found, degraded forests can be chosen for afforestation. In several states like Chattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand where the intensity of mining is very high, to find the non-forest land for afforestation to compensate the loss of forest is a big task. The utilisation of CAMPA fund: Several state governments are not utilising it properly. An amount of Rs.86 lakh from CAMPA funds meant for afforestation was reportedly spent on litigation work in Punjab. Moreover, at several places, the loss of natural species is compensated with plantation of non-native species in the name of the artificial plantation. It serves as a threat to even the existing ecosystem. A 2013 CAG report noted that state forest departments lack the planning and implementation capacity to carry out compensatory afforestation and forest conservation. With the share of funds transferred to states increasing from 10% to 90%, effective utilisation of these funds will depend on the capacity of state forest departments. Procuring land for compensatory afforestation is difficult as land is a limited resource, and is required for multiple purposes, such as agriculture, industry, etc. This is compounded by unclear land titles, and difficulties in complying with procedures for land use. A High-Level Committee on Environment Laws observed that quality of forest cover has declined between 1951 and 2014, with poor quality of compensatory afforestation plantations being one of the reasons behind the decline. The Bill delegates the determination of NPV (value of loss of forest ecosystem) to an expert committee constituted by the central government. As NPV constitutes about half of the total funds collected, its computation methodology would be important. Way ahead The proposed objective of the Act must be fulfilled by utilising the CAMPA funds only for the purpose it is meant for. It should efficiently be used only for afforestation and wildlife conservation activities. A closer look at the state government activities using CAMPA funding is needed. The central government should adopt the concept of outcome budgeting for allocation of funds to the state government in which funding will be done on an instalment basis by checking the outcome of previous funds. State governments should restore the existing forests rather than creating new ones. Also, Read Environmental Impact Assessment
Pre-historic India And The Harappan Culture
Pre-historic India And The Harappan Culture There are no written records are available for the prehistoric period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period. In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. located near water sources. rock shelters and caves also lived rarely in huts made of leaves famous sites of Old Stone Age The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on northwest India. The Siwalik hills on north India Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and Attirampakkam near Chennai food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers.–hunter-gatherers used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite A few Old Stone Age paintings found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bihar paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artefacts, often not more than five centimetres in size, and therefore called microliths a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing. use of bow and arrow also began during this period a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich. Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practised. Neolithic Age 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C. found in various parts of India. These include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley inUttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh characteristic features practice of agriculture domestication of animal polishing of stone tools manufacture of pottery Mudbrick houses were built instead of grass huts. Wheels were used to make pottery. cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life. Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead There was also improvement in agriculture. Wheat, barley, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport The people of the Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool Read Also Imperial Cholas Metal Age Neolithic period is followed by the Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when copper and bronze came to be used. the technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artefacts But the use of stone tools was not given up micro-lithic tools continued to be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period. Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas. Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials burial pits were covered with these stones Such graves are extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu Black and red pottery, iron artefacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were found in the burial pits HARAPPAN CULTURE Important Sites Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat Mohenjodara is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares Origin and Evolution four important stages or phases of evolution pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late Harappan. the pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. the transition from rural to urban life sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution. late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia. Salient Features of the Harappan Culture Town Planning grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people. large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics
Shanta Kumar Committee Recommendations
Shanta Kumar Committee Recommendations Background Government of India (GOI) set up a High-Level Committee (HLC) in August 2014 with ShantaKumar as the Chairman, six members and a special invitee to suggest restructuring or unbundling of FCI with a view to improving its operational efficiency and financial management. Government Of India also asked HLC to suggest measures for overall improvement in the management of food grains by FCI to suggest reorienting the role and functions of FCI in MSP operations, storage and distribution of food grains and food security systems of the country; and to suggest cost-effective models for storage and movement of grains and integration of supply chain of food grains in the country. The Committee had wide consultations with several Chief Ministers, Food Secretaries and other stakeholders in various States. Suggestions from the public were invited through various newspapers also. The committee submitted its report in January 2015. Recently in the news because The Union Minister of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution stated that primacy will be given to ensuring the functioning of FCI and it is streamlined and fast-paced as per recommendations of the Shanta Kumar Committee. Shanta Kumar Committee Major recommendations On procurement-related issues HLC recommends that FCI hand over all procurement operations of wheat, paddy and rice to states that have gained sufficient experience in this regard and have created a reasonable infrastructure for procurement. These states are Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Punjab (in alphabetical order). FCI will accept only the surplus (after deducting the needs of the states under NFSA) from these state governments (not millers) to be moved to deficit states. Read Also Right To Information On stocking and movement-related issues HLC recommends that FCI should outsource its stocking operations to various agencies such as Central Warehousing Corporation, State Warehousing Corporation, Private Sector under Private Entrepreneur Guarantee (PEG) scheme, and even state governments that are building silos through a private sector on state lands (as in Madhya Pradesh). It should be done on a competitive bidding basis, inviting various stakeholders and creating competition to bring down costs of storage. India needs more bulk handling facilities than it currently has On Buffer Stocking Operations and Liquidation Policy One of the key challenges for FCI has been to carry buffer stocks way in excess of buffer stocking norms. The underlying reasons for this situation are many, starting with export bans to open-ended procurement with distortions (through bonuses and high statutory levies), but the key factor is that there is no pro-active liquidation policy. The current system is extremely ad-hoc, slow and costs the nation heavily. A transparent liquidation policy is the need of the hour, which should automatically kick-in when FCI is faced with surplus stocks than buffer norms. Greater flexibility to FCI with business orientation to operate in OMSS and export markets is needed. On Labour Related Issues FCI engages a large number of workers (loaders) to get the job of loading/unloading done smoothly and in time. HLC recommends that the condition of contract labour, which works the hardest and is the largest in number, should be improved by giving them better facilities. On PDS and NFSA related issues Restructuring the National Food Security Act (NFSA) by virtually diluting its scope and coverage from 67 percent of the population to about 40 percent population. In order to curtail leakages in PDS Government should differ implementation of NFSA in states that have not done end to end computerization. On end to end computerization HLC recommends a total end to end computerization of the entire food management system, starting from procurement from farmers, to stocking, movement and finally distribution through TPDS. It can be done on a real-time basis, and some states have done a commendable job on computerizing the procurement operations.
