Left-Wing Extremism (LWE)
Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) Left-wing extremism (LWE) is once more in the limelight with the Home Minister asserting that the government is committed to rooting out the menace. The LWE movement also known as Maoism or Naxalism originated in the Naxalbari village of Darjeeling district in West Bengal in 1967. They follow the ideology of Mao Zedong and use violence and guerilla warfare to destabilize the state. Former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh identified it as the most significant threat to internal security of India. However, the Left Wing Extremist movement has been waning out since then. Emergence and Ideology The Naxal movement originated under the leadership of Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal. Maoist doctrine professes a ‘Protracted People’s War’ which is a capture of State Power through a combination of an armed insurgency, mass mobilisation and strategic alliances. It considers industrial-rural divide fundamental to capitalist exploitation and hopes to overcome it by a violent mass struggle. Read Also India-EU Relations Factors responsible for the rise of Naxalism Rise of Naxalism is attributed to the gross lack of development even after being mineral-rich areas combined with other socio-economic problems. These can be summarised as Developmental Deficit: the Naxal affected areas face rampant poverty and unemployment. The areas also lack education and health facilities. There is also a deficit of infrastructures such as roads, bridges and communication facilities. Governance Deficit: there is a lack of routine administration with incompetent, ill-trained and poorly motivated personnel. There are corruption and mismanagement of government schemes and poor implementation of special laws. Electoral politics is perverted and the working of local government is unsatisfactory. Social Exclusion and Alienation: there are human rights violations and the dignity of life is not ensured. There is a disconnect with the mainstream society which all leads to the discontent against the government. Jal-Jangal-Jameen: the issues of land, forest and water rights. There is an evasion of land ceiling laws and unlawful encroachment and illegal occupation of community lands. The traditional rights are not recognised and there is unfair land acquisition without any compensation or proper rehabilitation. The tribe- forest relations are also disrupted. Such conditions make it easier for an ideology like Maoism to take root. The government and the capitalist class are identified as the perpetrators of the backwardness of the region and the youth are motivated to take up arms against them. Spread of Naxalism The Spread occurred in three phases – The first phase started in Darjeeling in West Bengal from where it spread to Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The phase ended with the Emergency period seeing the arrest of most of the Maoist cadres. The second phase started when the movement emerged in a more violent form after the emergency and spread from West Bengal again to Bihar, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Chattisgarh. The third phase started with the formation of CPI (Maoist) in 2004. Thus Naxalism spread in eastern India often referred to as the ‘Red Corridor’, a narrow but contiguous strip connecting Karnataka and West Bengal through Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Government measures to fight Naxalism The Maoist issue has been identified as a law and order problem and was taken care of by the state government until 2006 when the Prime Minister declared it as the biggest challenge to internal security. A new division was created in Home ministry and the D Bandopadhyay Committee was formed. The D Bandopadhyay Committee identified the socio-political, economic and cultural discrimination against the Scheduled castes and tribes and lack of their empowerment as the reason for the spread of Naxalism. It highlighted the failure of governance and recommended for tribal friendly land acquisition and rehabilitation. Developmental measures Some Schemes implemented include Special Central Assistance (SCA) – to develop infrastructure and public services. Special Infrastructure Scheme – to cater to critical infrastructure gaps that are not covered in any other schemes. Security Related Expenditure Scheme – funds to train and equip security forces and rehabilitation of surrendered Naxalites. Road Connectivity Project– for construction of about 5,500 km roads. Skill development and educational development initiatives – construction of skill development centres, ITIs, Kendriya Vidyalayas, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas and schools under the Eklavya model. Installation of Mobile Towers– for endless telecom connectivity. Financial inclusion- for ensuring the presence of banking facilities to all citizens residing in LWE affected areas. Roshani Scheme– Skill development program for the Tribal population by the Rural Development ministry. Security measures Worst affected states launched a large scale offensive by the deployment of heavy troops. The Andhra Pradesh government demonstrated the Greyhounds model which led the Maoist leaders to leave Andhra Pradesh. Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy- the state governments rehabilitate the Naxalites in order to bring innocent individuals caught in the trap of LWE in the mainstream. The government formed The national strategy to counter LWE, a multipronged approach to ensure participatory governance and protection of the rights of local tribals. A separate 66 Indian Reserve Battalion (IRBs) was raised to curb the menace apart from Intelligence sharing. SAMADHAN doctrine SAMADHAN stands for- Smart Leadership, Aggressive Strategy, Motivation and Training, Actionable Intelligence, Dashboard based Key Performance Indicators and Key Result Areas, Harnessing Technology, an Action plan for each Theatre, No access to Financing. It is a one-stop solution to fight LWE, encompassing the entire strategy of government from short-term policy to long-term policy formulated at different levels. Read Also Terrorism FInancing Some Issues and Success models Failure of Salwa Judum It was a mass movement against the atrocities committed by Naxalites in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh. The movement was a failure as the Naxalite propaganda effectively countered it by painting it as anti-people and as a proxy police movement. Several leaders and hundreds of villagers along with a Congressman who supported the movement were executed by the Maoists. Intellectual Support to Naxalism Influential Intellectuals advocating an egalitarian society, human rights and tribal rights often support Naxalism. They condemn the security forces for human rights violations but maintain a noble silence on Naxal brutalities. These intellectual forces must instead encourage the Naxals to join mainstream politics and not to oppose developmental projects. Naxalism
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) Air pollution is one of the biggest global environmental challenges of today. A time-bound national-level strategy for pan India implementation to tackle the increasing air pollution problems across the country in a comprehensive manner in the form of National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was launched by Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Focus: A collaborative and participatory approach involving relevant Central Ministries, State Governments, local bodies and other Stakeholders with focus on all sources of pollution. Comprehensive mitigation actions for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution besides augmenting the air quality monitoring network across the country and strengthening the awareness and capacity building activities. “Today cities occupy just 3% of the land, but contribute to 82% of GDP and responsible for 78% of Carbon dioxide emissions; cities though are engines of growth and equity but they have to be sustainable and it is in this context that NCAP being a very inclusive program holds special relevance.”-CEO NITI AYOG Key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): A five-year action plan with a tentative target of 20-30% reduction in concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 by 2024, with 2017 as the base year. City-specific action plans are being formulated for 102 non-attainment cities identified for implementing mitigation actions under NCAP (The non-attainment cities are those that have fallen short of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for over five years. Sectoral working groups, national level Project Monitoring Unit, Project Implementation Unit, state-level project monitoring unit, city level review committee under the Municipal Commissioner and DM level Committee in the Districts are to be constituted under NCAP for effective implementation and success of the Programme As part of the programme, the Centre also plans to scale up the air quality monitoring network across India. At least 4,000 monitors are needed across the country, instead of the existing 101 real-time air quality (AQ) monitors, according to an analysis. The plan proposes a three-tier system, including real-time physical data collection, data archiving, and an action trigger system in all 102 cities, besides extensive plantation plans, research on clean-technologies, landscaping of major arterial roads, and stringent industrial standards. It also proposes state-level plans of e-mobility in the two-wheeler sector, rapid augmentation of charging infrastructure, stringent implementation of BS-VI norms, boosting public transportation system, and adoption of third-party audits for polluting industries. Major Concerns: The MoEFCC, as a nodal central and apex agency, will have to flex its authority to ensure all NCAP indicators are integrated with multi-sector and inter-ministerial programmes to align with the air quality target and objectives. NCAP should not become only a top-down prescriptive approach. In fact, within the federal structure, NCAP, while ensuring compliance, will also have to create enough room for tighter action that can be even stronger than the common minimum national programme as defined by NCAP. State governments and city authorities should be encouraged and enabled to take those extra steps to meet local targets. City-wise air quality targets will clearly show where much deeper cuts will be needed for hotspot and stronger regional action. NCAP will also have to join all critical dots with clarity. For instance, in case of vehicular pollution, the main body of the plan has ignored mobility, transportation and urban planning strategies, though fortunately, the indicative broadsheet of action at the end has listed public transport, transit-oriented development policies, and non-motorised transport. But these will have to be detailed out with clear pathways and milestones and integrated well with the NCAP strategies. NCAP will also have to be more nuanced and adopt appropriate approaches for small and big cities according to their dominant pollution profile while several strategies may remain uniform. The critics say: The pollution reduction target in these cities is not ‘legally binding’ on respective states. A reduction of merely 20-30% from 2017 level by 2024 will not be sufficient to bring the air quality at the desired level, i.e. the targets under action plan are less ambitious. Way Forward Although the targets appear less ambitious, The NCAP is envisaged to be dynamic and would continue to evolve based on the additional scientific and technical information as they emerged. This is a welcome step as it was imperative to have measurable, focused and precise targets with clear timelines and demonstrable accountability towards public health, to succeed in this national-level initiative.
Right to Information
Right to Information – RTI The Right to information is in the news regarding the amendments recently passed by the Parliament. The amendments have become been criticised by activists on grounds that it will affect independence and neutrality of the transparency panel. Mr Kulwal v/s Jaipur Municipal Corporation case, 1986 Supreme Court directed that freedom of speech and expression provided under Article 19 of the Constitution clearly implies Right to Information, as without information the freedom of speech and expression cannot be fully used by the citizens. Read RTI Act and the Judiciary Right to Information Act, 2005 The right to information act was passed by the Parliament to empower the citizens and enhance their role in the democracy. It seeks to promote transparency and accountability in governance as well as fight rampant corruption. Provisions of the Act It defines “Information” as any material in any form, including Records, Documents, Memos, e-mails, Opinions, Advices, Press releases, Circulars, Orders, Logbooks, Contracts, Reports, Papers, Samples, Models, Data material held in any electronic form and information relating to any private body which can be accessed by a Public Authority under any other law for the time being in force. “Right to Information” according to the Act is the right to information held by any public authority and includes the right to: Inspection of work, documents, records; Taking notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records; Taking certified samples of material; Obtaining information in the form of diskettes, floppies, tapes, video cassettes or in any other electronic mode or through printouts. “Public authority” is defined as any authority or body or institution of self-government established or constituted by the Constitution; by any other statute by Parliament/State Legislature; by Government notification or order, and includes any— body owned, controlled or substantially financed; non-Government organisation substantially financed, directly or indirectly funded by the Government. The Act also requires suo motu disclosure of information by public authorities. Information Commissioners The Act provides for the appointment of Central as well as State Information Commissioners. Public authorities have designated Public Information Officers made responsible to give information to a person who seeks information under the RTI Act. Time limits The Act mandates that the information sought should be provided within 30 days of the receipt of the application; and within 48 hours if it concerns the life or liberty of a person. However, an extra 5 days maybe added if the request has been made through the Assistant Public Information Officer or it is sent to a wrong public authority. Exemptions and Conflicts The Act also provides for exemptions against furnishing information including that under the Official Secrets Act, 1923 if larger public interest is served. Indian Evidence Act, Atomic Energy Act, 1912, Central Civil Services Act, Official Secrets Act, 1923 have provisions for non-disclosure of information. However, the RTI Act says that if there is a conflict between the two laws, the provisions of the RTI Act override those of the Official Secrets Act. Read Also Government of India Act of 1919 The Right to Information (Amendment) Bill, 2019 It seeks to amend the Right to Information Act, 2005. Key features of the Bill include: Term of Information Commissioners: Under the Act, Chief Information Commissioner (CIC) and Information Commissioners (ICs) appointed to implement the provisions of the Act, will hold office for a term of five years. The Bill removes this provision and states that the central government will notify the term of office for the CIC and the ICs. Determination of salary: The Act states that the salary of the CIC and ICs will be equivalent to the salary paid to the Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners, respectively in the centre and state levels. The Bill seeks to amend these provisions to state that the salaries, allowances, and other terms and conditions of service of the central and state CIC and ICs will be determined by the central government. Deductions in salary: The Act states that at the time of the appointment of the CIC and ICs (at the central and state level), if they are receiving a pension or any other retirement benefits for previous government service, their salaries will be reduced by an amount equal to the pension. Previous government service includes service under (i) the central government, (ii) state government, (iii) corporation established under a central or state law, and (iv) government company owned or controlled by the central or state government. The Bill removes these provisions. Evaluation Supreme Court on Right to Information “The right to get the information.. is [a] natural right flowing from the concept of democracy. That right has reached new dimensions and urgency. That right puts greater responsibility upon those who take upon the responsibility to inform.” Read Current Affairs for UPSC The relevance of the Right to Information Information as a right is a prerequisite for an effective exercise of the right to free speech and expression. Hence, the RTI Act was a consensus law and a product of public consultation. As the Act has empowered citizens and helped break the hold of vested interests over the administration, the law has always faced a threat from many in power. How has the Act been weakened? The Central Information Commissioner, the corresponding authorities in the States and other Information Commissioners are statutory functionaries vested with the power to review the decisions of public information officers in government departments, institutions and bodies. The amendments propose to empower the Union government to set the tenure and remuneration of these Commissioners. The security of tenure of an adjudicating authority, whose mandate is to intervene in favour of information-seekers against powerful regimes and bureaucrats, thus, has been undermined. Freedom from interference and pressures provide the necessary atmosphere where one can work with an absolute commitment to the cause of transparency. This is no longer guaranteed. The irrationality of the Amendment Any amendment to a law is bound to be viewed with suspicion if no fundamental need is seen for the changes it proposes. The government claims its aim is to ‘rationalise’ the status of the authorities. It argues
Gupta Empire- The Golden Age of Ancient India
Ancient India – Other Dynasties & Empires- Pallavas, Chalukyas And Rashtrakutas Harshavardhana (606 – 647 A.D ) beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in north India. chief sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his times are the Harshacharita written by Bana and the Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang Bana was the court poet of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang was the Chinese traveller who visited India in the seventh century A.D the dramas are written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika also provide useful information The Madhuban plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription are also helpful to know the chronology of Harsha. The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha. founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhuti. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas. They called themselves Vardhanas first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi. He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka. Rajyavardhana came to the throne. His sister, Rajyasri had married the Maukhari ruler called Grihavarman Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara. Hiuen Tsang’s accounts also confirm the victory of Pulakesin Harsha and Buddhism In his early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. Harsha prohibited the use of animal food in his kingdom and punished those who kill any living being. He erected thousands of stupas and established travellers’ rests all over his kingdom. erected monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists Once in five years he convened a gathering of representatives of all religions and honoured them with gifts and costly presents. brought the Buddhist monks together frequently to discuss and examine the Buddhist doctrine Kanauj Assembly Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards the close of his reign invited representatives of all religious sects. Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana doctrine and established its superiority over others. However, violence broke out and there were acts of arson. There was also an attempt on the life of Harsha. Soon, it was brought under control and the guilty were punished. On the final day of the Assembly, Hiuen Tsang was honoured with costly presents. Allahabad Conference Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference held at Allahabad, known as Prayag. It was the one among the conferences routinely convened by Harsha once in five yea According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was so lavish that he emptied the treasury and even gave away the clothes and jewels he was wearing. His statement might be one of admiring exaggeration. Harsha’s Administration administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines as the Guptas did Taxation was also light and forced labour was also rare. One-sixth of the produce was collected as land tax. Harsha’s army consisted of the traditional four divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant The maintenance of public records was the salient feature of Harsha’s administration. archive of Harsha period was known as nilopitu and it was under the control of special officers Both good and bad events happened during his time had been recorded. Society and Economy under Harsha The fourfold division of the society – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra – was prevalent. Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings. The Kshatriyas were the ruling class. The Vysyas were mainly traders. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practised agriculture. There existed many sub-castes. position of women was not satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband) had declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the higher castes. The system of dowry had also become common. The practise of Sati was also prevalent. Hiuen Tsang mentions three ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water burial and exposure in the woods. Cultural Progress art and architecture of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Gupta style. Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at Nalanda. He also speaks of a copper statue of Buddha with eight feet in height brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha Besides Harshacharita, Banabhatta wrote Kadambari. literary figures in Harsha’s court were Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari, who was the poet, philosopher and grammarian. Harsha himself authored three plays – Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda. Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his liberal endowments. It attained an international reputation as a centre of learning during his reign. Nalanda University The Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of Nalanda The term Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period. It was patronised by his successors and later by Harsha The professors of the University were called pandits. renowned professors were Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head of the Nalanda University. Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and lodging. It was maintained with the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and lodging. was maintained with the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different rulers Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies were also taught. general subjects like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus. Admission was made by means of an entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that not more than thirty percent of the candidates were successful. Discipline was very strict. More than lectures, discussion played an important part and
Gupta Empire- The Golden Age of Ancient India
Gupta Empire- The Golden Age of Ancient India Gupta Empire – Contemporary literary works like the Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas Chinese traveller Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, has left a valuable account of the social, economic and religious conditions of the Gupta empire. Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription achievements of Chandragupta I. Allahabad Pillar inscription. the reign of Samudragupta It describes his personality and achievements. This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It describes the circumstances of Samudragupta’s accession, his military campaigns in North India and the Deccan, his relationship with other contemporary rulers, and his accomplishments as a poet and scholar Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D) founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. Chandragupta I and he was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings). strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis married Kumaradevi, a princess of that family. This added to the power and prestige of the Gupta family. Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320. Samudragupta (330-380 A.D) greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. three stages in his military campaign Against some rulers of North India His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers A second campaign against some other rulers of North India. Samudragupta’s policy in South India was different. He did not destroy and annex those kingdoms. Instead, he defeated the rulers but gave them back their kingdoms. He only insisted on them to acknowledge his suzerainty. After these military victories, Samudragupta performed the asvamedha sacrifice He issued gold and silver coins with the legend ‘restorer of the asvamedha’. Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire Saka and Kushana principalities on the west and northwest were within the sphere of his influence. Allahabad Pillar (Nagasena) calls him Kaviraja because of his ability in composing verses. image depicting him with Veena is found in the coins issued by him. was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu. Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.) Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II Vikramaditya Fahien’s Visit famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II. nine years stay in India, he spent six years in the Gupta empire Gupta Administration Gupta kings assumed titles like Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin. king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister, a Senapati or commander-in-chief of the army and other important officials A high official called Sandivigraha was mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions, most probably minister for foreign affairs The king maintained close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas They were mostly chosen from among the princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vaishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration. The villages in the district were under the control of Gramikas. There was no spy system. Read Also The Vedic Culture, Jainism And Buddhism Social Life during the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid. Brahmins occupied the top ladder of society. practice of untouchability had slowly begun during this period. Fahien mentions that Chandalas were segregated from society. position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period. prohibited from studying religious texts like the Puranas But it was insisted that they should be protected and generously treated by men. practice of Swyamvara was given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls. Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two branches – Vaishnavism and Saivism Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites. worship of images and celebration of religious festivals with elaborate rituals made these two religions popular. Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period. progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism great Jain Council was held at Valabhi during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was written Art and Architecture Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period most of the architecture of this period had been lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad remain important specimen of the Gupta art. no influence of Gandhara style the beautiful statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little Greek style. Buddha statue unearthed at Saranath was a unique piece of Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta is also remarkable. Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period. The gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj now kept at Birmingham museum, was about seven and a half feet height and nearly a ton weight. Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is still free from rust though completely exposed to sun and rain for so many centuries The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior. mural paintings of Ajantha mostly illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories. paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha style. Gupta coinage was also remarkable. Samudragupta issued eight types of gold coins. Literature The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period Nagari script had evolved from the Brahmi script. Numerous works in classical Sanskrit came to be written in the forms of epic, lyrics, drama and prose. The best of the Sanskrit literature belonged to the Gupta age. Samudragupta patronized a number of scholars
New Education Policy, 2019
New Education Policy, 2019 The Committee for Draft National Education Policy (Chair: Dr K. Kasturirangan) submitted its report on May 31, 2019. The Committee constituted by the Ministry of Human Resource Development proposes an education policy, which seeks to address the challenges of (i) access, (ii) equity, (iii) quality, (iv) affordability, and (v) accountability faced by the current education system. The draft Policy provides for reforms at all levels of education from school to higher education. It seeks to increase the focus on early childhood care, reform the current exam system, strengthen teacher training, and restructure the education regulatory framework. It also seeks to set up a National Education Commission, increase public investment in education, strengthen the use of technology and increase focus on vocational and adult education, among others. School Education Early Childhood Care and Education: In addition to problems of access, the Committee observed several quality-related deficiencies in the existing early childhood learning programmes. These include: (i) the curriculum that doesn’t meet the developmental needs of children (ii) lack of qualified and trained teachers (iii) substandard pedagogy. (iv) four years of secondary stage (classes nine to 12). Teacher management: For teacher training, the existing B.Ed. programme will be replaced by a four-year integrated B.Ed. programme that combines high-quality content, pedagogy, and practical training. An integrated continuous professional development will also be developed for all subjects. Teachers will be required to complete a minimum of 50 hours of continuous professional development training every year. Regulation of schools: It suggests creating an independent State School Regulatory Authority for each state that will prescribe basic uniform standards for public and private schools. Also, Read Lokpal and Lokayukta Higher Education The Committee noted that the current higher education system has multiple regulators with overlapping mandates. it proposes setting up the National Higher Education Regulatory Authority (NHERA). The draft Policy recommends separating NAAC from the UGC into an independent and autonomous body. Establishment of new higher educational institutions: Currently, higher educational institutions can only be set up by Parliament or state legislatures. The draft Policy proposes that these institutions could be allowed to be set up through a Higher Education Institution Charter from NHERA. Restructuring of higher education institutions: Higher education institutions will be restructured into three types: research universities focusing equally on research and teaching Universities focusing primarily on teaching. colleges focusing only on teaching at undergraduate levels. All such institutions will gradually move towards full autonomy – academic, administrative, and financial.Establishing a National Research Foundation: autonomous body, for funding, mentoring and building the capacity for quality research in India. The Foundation will consist of four major divisions: sciences, technology, social sciences, and arts and humanities. Moving towards a liberal approach: making undergraduate programmes interdisciplinary by redesigning their curriculum to include: (a) a common core curriculum and (b) one/two area(s) of specialisation. Students will be required to choose an area of specialisation as ‘major’, and an optional area as ‘minor’. Professional development of faculty: The draft Policy recommends the development of a Continuous Professional Development programme and introduction of permanent employment (tenure) track system for faculty in all higher education institutions by 2030. Education Governance Creation of a National Education Commission or Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog, as an apex body for education, to be headed by the Prime Minister. This body will be responsible for developing, implementing, evaluating, and revising the vision of education in the country on a continuous and sustained basis. Financing Education 6% of GDP as public investment in education. double the public investment in education from the current 10% of total public expenditure to 20% in the next 10 years Technology in Education National Mission on Education through information and communication technology A national education technology forum will also be set up under the mission as an autonomous body, to facilitate decision making on the induction, deployment and technology. National Repository on Educational Data: to maintain all the records related to teachers, students and the institutions in digital format. Vocational Education All school students must receive vocational education in at least one vocation in grades nine to 12 National Committee for the Integration of Vocational Education A separate fund will be set up for the integration of vocational education into educational institutions. Adult Education Establishing an autonomous Central Institute of Adult Education, as a constituent unit of NCERT, which will develop a National Curriculum Framework for adult education. The Framework will cover five broad areas: foundational literacy and numeracy, critical life skills vocational skills development, basic education, and continuing education. Adult Education Centres will be included within the proposed school complexes. Education and Indian Languages The committee recommended that the medium of instruction must either be the home language/mother-tongue/local language till grade five and preferable until grade eight, wherever possible. The draft Policy recommended that this three-language formula be continued and flexibility in the implementation of the formula should be provided. Concerns of the draft policy Increased governmental interference: the draft says that the appointments to all the statutory bodies in the higher education sector will have to be made by the Rashtriya Shiksha Ayog headed by the Prime minister. Concerns about the language formula. Poor level of consultations and deliberations in the preparatory stage The act does not suggest any remedy to the contentious section 12(1) (c) of the Right to Education Act. The policy draft is silent about the caste, class, gender and religious discrimination within the higher education institutions. Setting minimum standards: professional standard-setting bodies, stripped of their regulatory powers and punitive powers, will be reduced to toothless advisory bodies with little relevance to the academy quality maintenance of HEIs. Neglected foundational learning: the policy gives less importance to foundational learning with schooling. In the case of Early childhood education-MHRD given importance ahead of MWCD. Way Ahead Critics have taken note mainly of the proposal to form Rashtriya Shiksha Ayog (RSA) Headed by the PM –best to recast the RSA into a body similar to GST council comprising educational minister from each state. In the case of three language formula, there
President’s Rule
President’s Rule Article 356 known as ‘President’s Rule’ or ‘State Emergency’ or ‘Constitutional Emergency’ has become one of the most controversial and most criticized provisions of the Constitution. Dr B R Ambedkar had said that the Article 356 would remain a ‘dead-letter’ and would be used only as a measure of last resort. However, it turned out that the provision was abused on multiple occasions. Constitutional Provisions Proclamation The President’s Rule can be proclaimed under Article 356 on two grounds — one mentioned in Article 356 itself and another in Article 365: Article 356 empowers the President to issue a proclamation,on a report of the governor of the state or otherwise if he is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the government of a state can not be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the house. For example, a government fall due to breakdown of a coalition, or loss of confidence of the house. Article 365 says that whenever a state fails to comply with or to give effect to any direction from the Centre, it will be lawful to deem that the government of the state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. Parliamentary Approval A proclamation imposing President’s Rule must be approved by both the Houses of Parliament by simple majority within two months from the date of its issue. The President’s rule continues for six months and can be extended to for a maximum period of three years, with Parliamentary approval, every six months. In the event of dissolution of Lok Sabha during the same period, the proclamation survives until 30 days from the first sitting of the Lok Sabha after its reconstitution, provided the Rajya Sabha approves it in the meantime. Amendment The 44th Amendment Act of 1978, restrained the Parliamentary power such that, for the extension of President’s Rule beyond one year, the following conditions be satisfied: a proclamation of National Emergency should be in operation in the whole of India, or in the whole or any part of the state; the Election Commission must certify that the general elections to the legislative assembly of the concerned state cannot be held Revoking The President may revoke the proclamation at any time by a subsequent proclamation without any parliamentary approval. President’s powers during the proclamation He can take up the executive powers in the state. He can authorize Parliament to exercise functions of the state legislature. He can take all other necessary steps including suspension of constitutional provisions regarding any authority in the state. The President dismisses the state council of ministers headed by the chief minister. The President either suspends or dissolves the state legislative assembly, whose functions are performed by the Parliament then. The President, exercises the executive authority, through the Governor, with the help of the chief secretary of the state or the advisors appointed by the President. However, the President cannot assume to himself the powers vested in the concerned state high court or suspend the provisions of the Constitution relating to it. Read Also RBI Surplus Fund Transfer to GOI Special case of Jammu and Kashmir Till recently, Jammu and Kashmir had a constitution of its own and some provisions related to Governor’s rule in the state. In the event of failure of government machinery, Section 92 of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir is invoked by the Governor, with the consent of President of India, to bring the state under Governor’s rule. If it is not possible to revoke the governor’s rule within six months of imposition, then president’s rule under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution is imposed. However, since Article 370 has been abolished and Jammu and Kashmir made a Union territory, such provisions cease to exist. Recent Proclamations The latest proclamation was in Jammu and Kashmir, which had plunged into a political crisis after the coalition government collapsed. Arunachal Pradesh came under President’s Rule briefly in 2015-16 after some rebel MLA’s asked the governor to impeach the Speaker. Uttarakhand was also brought under President’s rule but was quashed by the State’s high court. Delhi, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand were also under President’s rule in the recent past. Court cases related to President’s rule S R Bommai vs Union of India Case (1994) It was a landmark judgement which had huge impact on Centre-State Relations. The Supreme Court held that the Proclamation of President’s Rule is subject to judicial review (as provided by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978) on grounds of mala fide intention; It also said that the imposition should be justified based on relevant material by the centre. The court can revive dissolved or suspended state governments if the imposition is unjustified and not constitutional; The President can only suspend the assembly; Dissolution of the state assembly can be done only after approval of Parliament; Financial instability and corruption allegations are not grounds enough for the imposition of President Rule; The state government shall be given enough opportunities to comply with directives are issued (article 365); Any measure or action taken by the state government for the protection of secularism can’t be led to the use of Article 356; The governor should exhaust the alternatives to form the government, in the event of resignation or dismissal of a government, before recommending for the imposition of President’s Rule. The Supreme Court held that power under Article 356 is an exceptional power and to be used only in case of exigencies. Various Commissions on President’s Rule Sarkaria Commission Sarkaria Commission found the Article misused in 90% of the cases for political purposes. So it recommended that: The Proclamation should cite the ‘reasons’ as to why the State cannot be run as per the provisions of the Constitution. A warning to be issued to the State government before resorting to the use of Article 356. Not to be used to serve political purposes. It also recommended for the amendment of Article 356 so as to make dissolution of the State Legislature only after approval by the Parliament. Punchhi Commission It recommended for the incorporation of guidelines set forth in the landmark judgement of the Supreme Court
Post Mauryan Era
Sungas founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas a most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for sometime Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lost also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north India Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer to him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved. his son Agnimitra became the ruler last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty. Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice They also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language. Satavahanas In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas rule lasted for about 450 years. They were also known as the Andhras. Puranas and inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahana Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to Nasik in the west. third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha sacrifices. The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit language greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D. His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire. His victory over Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists. Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna river. He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni. Economic Condition remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants organized guilds to increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into existence. coins called Karshapanas were used for trade. Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports. Cultural Contributions Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism. built chaityas and viharas. also made grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa. architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable. Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices. They also patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an excellent piece of Prakrit literature. Foreign Invasions of Northwest India Bactrians Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle of the third century B.C. From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for further conquests. Apollodorus conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain. Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda). also embraced Buddhism A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar. Sakas Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek rulers There were two different groups of Sakas – the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps ruling over Maharashtra. under the Saka rule in India in the first century, B.C. was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I, who was considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians. Kushanas Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original home was central Asia. first came to Bactria displacing the Sakas. Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara region. founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I occupied the Kabul valley and issued coins in his name son Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II conquered the whole of northwestern India as far as Mathura He issued gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’. He was a devotee of Lord Siva Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.) founder of the Saka era which starts from 78 A.D. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion and art. Kanishka’s Conquests According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it. His coins are found in many places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares and therefore, he must have conquered the greater part of the Gangetic plain. He also fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories from them. During the first expedition he was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho. He undertook a second expedition in which he was successful and he scored a victory over Panyang, the son of Pancho. Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar,
Imperial Cholas
Imperial Cholas After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur. They became prominent in the ninth century and established an empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their capital was Tanjore. also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula Therefore, they are called as the Imperial Cholas founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under the Cholas belong to his reign Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.) the defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai and the destruction of the Chera navy. He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam. Rajendra II (1012-1044 A.D.) reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries. defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas To commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram. He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects Chola Administration Central Government excellent system of administration emperor or king was at the top of the administration. The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige of monarchy. big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king. undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration. elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and sirudanam. Revenue land revenue department was well organized. It was called as puravuvarithinaikkalam. residential portion of the village was called urnattam. These and other lands such as the lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax. Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines. the hard times, there was remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan. Read Also Post Mauryan Era Military Administration royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed Provincial Administration divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus. each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams. valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar. town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar. Village Assemblies system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the formation and functions of the village council the village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nominate its members to the village council. From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai system for a year. were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and puravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village administration. committee members were called variyapperumakkal. Socio-economic Life Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai castes cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life position of women did not improve. The practise of ‘Sati’ was prevalent among the royal families. The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this period Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period. temples remained centres of economic activity during this period mathas had great influence during this period Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent. Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry Education and Literature Besides the temples and mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished. an inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed in these places. development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola peri Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th centu Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two masterpieces of this age. Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I. The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings. The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi. The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age Art and Architecture Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana. early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district. The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South Indian art and architecture. It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front known as the Nandimandapa. architecture is the Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
Public Administration, Syllabus for UPSC Civil Service Mains Exam
Paper 1 Administrative Theory Introduction:Meaning, scope and significance of Public Administration; Wilson’s vision of Public Administration; Evolution of the discipline and its present status; New Public Administration; Public Choice approach; Challenges of liberalization, Privatisation, Globalisation; Good Governance: concept and application; New Public Management. Administrative Thought: Scientific Management and Scientific Management movement; Classical Theory; Weber’s bureaucratic model– its critique and post-Weberian Developments; Dynamic Administration (Mary Parker Follett); Human Relations School (Elton Mayo and others); Functions of the Executive (C.I. Barnard); Simon’s decision-making theory; Participative Management (R. Likert, C. Argyris, D. McGregor). Administrative Behaviour:Process and techniques of decision-making; Communication; Morale; Motivation Theories – content, process and contemporary; Theories of Leadership: Traditional and Modern. Organisations:Theories – systems, contingency; Structure and forms: Ministries and Departments, Corporations, Companies, Boards and Commissions; Ad hoc and advisory bodies; Headquarters and Field relationships; Regulatory Authorities; Public-Private Partnerships. Accountability and control:Concepts of accountability and control; Legislative, Executive and Judicial control over administration; Citizen and Administration; Role of media, interest groups, voluntary organizations; Civil society; Citizen’s Charters; Right to Information; Social audit. Administrative Law:Meaning, scope and significance; Dicey on Administrative law; Delegated legislation; Administrative Tribunals. Comparative Public Administration:Historical and sociological factors affecting administrative systems; Administration and politics in different countries; Current status of Comparative Public Administration; Ecology and administration; Riggsian models and their critique. Which is the Best UPSC Test Series for UPSC Check Now Development Dynamics:Concept of development; Changing a profile of development administration; ‘Anti development thesis’; Bureaucracy and development; Strong state versus the market debate; Impact of liberalisation on administrationin developing countries; Women and development – the self-help group movement. Personnel Administration:Importance of human resource development; Recruitment, training, career advancement, position classification, discipline, performance appraisal, promotion, pay and service conditions; employer-employee relations, grievance redressal mechanism; Code of conduct; Administrative ethics. Public Policy:Models of policy-making and their critique; Processes of conceptualisation, planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and review and their limitations; State theories and public policy formulation. Techniques of Administrative Improvement:Organisation and methods, Work study and work management; e-governance and information technology; Management aid tools like network analysis, MIS, PERT, CPM. Financial Administration:Monetary and fiscal policies; Public borrowings and public debt Budgets – types and forms; Budgetary process; Financial accountability; Accounts and audit. PAPER-II Indian Administration Evolution of Indian Administration:Kautilya’s Arthashastra; Mughal administration; Legacy of British rule in politics and administration – Indianization of public services, revenue administration, district administration, local self-government. Philosophical and Constitutional framework of government:Salient features and value premises; Constitutionalism; Political culture; Bureaucracy and democracy; Bureaucracy and development. Public Sector Undertakings:The public sector in modern India; Forms of Public Sector Undertakings; Problems of autonomy, accountability and control; Impact of liberalization and privatization. Union Government and Administration:Executive, Parliament, Judiciary – structure, functions, work processes; Recent trends; Intragovernmental relations; Cabinet Secretariat; Prime Minister’s Office; Central Secretariat; Ministries and Departments; Boards; Commissions; Attached offices; Field organizations. Plans and Priorities:Machinery of planning; Role, composition and functions of the Planning Commission and the National Development Council; ‘Indicative’ planning; Process of plan formulation at Union and State levels; Constitutional Amendments (1992) and decentralized planning for economic development and social justice. State Government and Administration:Union-State administrative, legislative and financial relations; Role of the Finance Commission; Governor; Chief Minister; Council of Ministers; Chief Secretary; State Secretariat; Directorates. District Administration since Independence:Changing role of the Collector; Union state-local relations; Imperatives of development management and law and order administration; District administration and democratic decentralization. Civil Services:Constitutional position; Structure, recruitment, training and capacity-building; Good governance initiatives; Code of conduct and discipline; Staff associations; Political rights; Grievance redressal mechanism; Civil service neutrality; Civil service activism. Financial Management:Budget as a political instrument; Parliamentary control of public expenditure; Role of finance ministry in the monetary and fiscal area; Accounting techniques; Audit; Role of Controller General of Accounts and Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Administrative Reforms since Independence:Major concerns; Important Committees and Commissions; Reforms in financial management and human resource development; Problems of implementation. Rural Development:Institutions and agencies since independence; Rural development programmes: foci and strategies; Decentralization and Panchayati Raj; 73rd Constitutional amendment. Urban Local Government:Municipal governance: main features, structures, finance and problem areas; 74th Constitutional Amendment; Globallocal debate; New localism; Development dynamics, politics and administration with special reference to city management. Law and Order Administration:British legacy; National Police Commission; Investigative agencies; Role of central and state agencies including paramilitary forces in maintenance of law and order and countering insurgency and terrorism; Criminalisation of politics and administration; Police-public relations; Reforms in Police. Significant issues in Indian Administration:Values in public service; Regulatory Commissions; National Human Rights Commission; Problems of administration in coalition regimes; Citizen-administration interface; Corruption and administration; Disaster management
